Calculus Examples

$\frac{2 x (x^{2} - 3)}{{(x^{2} + 1)}^{3}}$

Step 1

Since $2$ is constant with respect to $x$ , the derivative of $\frac{2 x (x^{2} - 3)}{{(x^{2} + 1)}^{3}}$ with respect to $x$ is $2 \frac{d}{d x} [\frac{x (x^{2} - 3)}{{(x^{2} + 1)}^{3}}]$ .

$2 \frac{d}{d x} [\frac{x (x^{2} - 3)}{{(x^{2} + 1)}^{3}}]$

Step 2

Differentiate using the Quotient Rule which states that $\frac{d}{d x} [\frac{f (x)}{g (x)}]$ is $\frac{g (x) \frac{d}{d x} [f (x)] - f (x) \frac{d}{d x} [g (x)]}{{g (x)}^{2}}$ where $f (x) = x (x^{2} - 3)$ and $g (x) = {(x^{2} + 1)}^{3}$ .

$2 \frac{{(x^{2} + 1)}^{3} \frac{d}{d x} [x (x^{2} - 3)] - x (x^{2} - 3) \frac{d}{d x} [{(x^{2} + 1)}^{3}]}{{({(x^{2} + 1)}^{3})}^{2}}$

Step 3

Multiply the exponents in ${({(x^{2} + 1)}^{3})}^{2}$ .

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Step 3.1

Apply the power rule and multiply exponents, ${(a^{m})}^{n} = a^{m n}$ .

$2 \frac{{(x^{2} + 1)}^{3} \frac{d}{d x} [x (x^{2} - 3)] - x (x^{2} - 3) \frac{d}{d x} [{(x^{2} + 1)}^{3}]}{{(x^{2} + 1)}^{3 \cdot 2}}$

Step 3.2

Multiply $3$ by $2$ .

$2 \frac{{(x^{2} + 1)}^{3} \frac{d}{d x} [x (x^{2} - 3)] - x (x^{2} - 3) \frac{d}{d x} [{(x^{2} + 1)}^{3}]}{{(x^{2} + 1)}^{6}}$

Step 4

Differentiate using the Product Rule which states that $\frac{d}{d x} [f (x) g (x)]$ is $f (x) \frac{d}{d x} [g (x)] + g (x) \frac{d}{d x} [f (x)]$ where $f (x) = x$ and $g (x) = x^{2} - 3$ .

$2 \frac{{(x^{2} + 1)}^{3} (x \frac{d}{d x} [x^{2} - 3] + (x^{2} - 3) \frac{d}{d x} [x]) - x (x^{2} - 3) \frac{d}{d x} [{(x^{2} + 1)}^{3}]}{{(x^{2} + 1)}^{6}}$

Step 5

Differentiate.

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Step 5.1

By the Sum Rule, the derivative of $x^{2} - 3$ with respect to $x$ is $\frac{d}{d x} [x^{2}] + \frac{d}{d x} [- 3]$ .

$2 \frac{{(x^{2} + 1)}^{3} (x (\frac{d}{d x} [x^{2}] + \frac{d}{d x} [- 3]) + (x^{2} - 3) \frac{d}{d x} [x]) - x (x^{2} - 3) \frac{d}{d x} [{(x^{2} + 1)}^{3}]}{{(x^{2} + 1)}^{6}}$

Step 5.2

Differentiate using the Power Rule which states that $\frac{d}{d x} [x^{n}]$ is $n x^{n - 1}$ where $n = 2$ .

$2 \frac{{(x^{2} + 1)}^{3} (x (2 x + \frac{d}{d x} [- 3]) + (x^{2} - 3) \frac{d}{d x} [x]) - x (x^{2} - 3) \frac{d}{d x} [{(x^{2} + 1)}^{3}]}{{(x^{2} + 1)}^{6}}$

Step 5.3

Since $- 3$ is constant with respect to $x$ , the derivative of $- 3$ with respect to $x$ is $0$ .

$2 \frac{{(x^{2} + 1)}^{3} (x (2 x + 0) + (x^{2} - 3) \frac{d}{d x} [x]) - x (x^{2} - 3) \frac{d}{d x} [{(x^{2} + 1)}^{3}]}{{(x^{2} + 1)}^{6}}$

Step 5.4

Add $2 x$ and $0$ .

$2 \frac{{(x^{2} + 1)}^{3} (x (2 x) + (x^{2} - 3) \frac{d}{d x} [x]) - x (x^{2} - 3) \frac{d}{d x} [{(x^{2} + 1)}^{3}]}{{(x^{2} + 1)}^{6}}$

Step 6

Raise $x$ to the power of $1$ .

$2 \frac{{(x^{2} + 1)}^{3} (2 (x^{1} x) + (x^{2} - 3) \frac{d}{d x} [x]) - x (x^{2} - 3) \frac{d}{d x} [{(x^{2} + 1)}^{3}]}{{(x^{2} + 1)}^{6}}$

Step 7

Raise $x$ to the power of $1$ .

$2 \frac{{(x^{2} + 1)}^{3} (2 (x^{1} x^{1}) + (x^{2} - 3) \frac{d}{d x} [x]) - x (x^{2} - 3) \frac{d}{d x} [{(x^{2} + 1)}^{3}]}{{(x^{2} + 1)}^{6}}$

Step 8

Use the power rule $a^{m} a^{n} = a^{m + n}$ to combine exponents.

$2 \frac{{(x^{2} + 1)}^{3} (2 x^{1 + 1} + (x^{2} - 3) \frac{d}{d x} [x]) - x (x^{2} - 3) \frac{d}{d x} [{(x^{2} + 1)}^{3}]}{{(x^{2} + 1)}^{6}}$

Step 9

Differentiate using the Power Rule.

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Step 9.1

Add $1$ and $1$ .

$2 \frac{{(x^{2} + 1)}^{3} (2 x^{2} + (x^{2} - 3) \frac{d}{d x} [x]) - x (x^{2} - 3) \frac{d}{d x} [{(x^{2} + 1)}^{3}]}{{(x^{2} + 1)}^{6}}$

Step 9.2

Differentiate using the Power Rule which states that $\frac{d}{d x} [x^{n}]$ is $n x^{n - 1}$ where $n = 1$ .

$2 \frac{{(x^{2} + 1)}^{3} (2 x^{2} + (x^{2} - 3) \cdot 1) - x (x^{2} - 3) \frac{d}{d x} [{(x^{2} + 1)}^{3}]}{{(x^{2} + 1)}^{6}}$

Step 9.3

Simplify by adding terms.

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Step 9.3.1

Multiply $x^{2} - 3$ by $1$ .

$2 \frac{{(x^{2} + 1)}^{3} (2 x^{2} + x^{2} - 3) - x (x^{2} - 3) \frac{d}{d x} [{(x^{2} + 1)}^{3}]}{{(x^{2} + 1)}^{6}}$

Step 9.3.2

Add $2 x^{2}$ and $x^{2}$ .

$2 \frac{{(x^{2} + 1)}^{3} (3 x^{2} - 3) - x (x^{2} - 3) \frac{d}{d x} [{(x^{2} + 1)}^{3}]}{{(x^{2} + 1)}^{6}}$

Step 10

Differentiate using the chain rule, which states that $\frac{d}{d x} [f (g (x))]$ is $f' (g (x)) g' (x)$ where $f (x) = x^{3}$ and $g (x) = x^{2} + 1$ .

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Step 10.1

To apply the Chain Rule, set $u$ as $x^{2} + 1$ .

$2 \frac{{(x^{2} + 1)}^{3} (3 x^{2} - 3) - x (x^{2} - 3) (\frac{d}{d u} [u^{3}] \frac{d}{d x} [x^{2} + 1])}{{(x^{2} + 1)}^{6}}$

Step 10.2

Differentiate using the Power Rule which states that $\frac{d}{d u} [u^{n}]$ is $n u^{n - 1}$ where $n = 3$ .

$2 \frac{{(x^{2} + 1)}^{3} (3 x^{2} - 3) - x (x^{2} - 3) (3 u^{2} \frac{d}{d x} [x^{2} + 1])}{{(x^{2} + 1)}^{6}}$

Step 10.3

Replace all occurrences of $u$ with $x^{2} + 1$ .

$2 \frac{{(x^{2} + 1)}^{3} (3 x^{2} - 3) - x (x^{2} - 3) (3 {(x^{2} + 1)}^{2} \frac{d}{d x} [x^{2} + 1])}{{(x^{2} + 1)}^{6}}$

Step 11

Simplify with factoring out.

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Step 11.1

Multiply $3$ by $- 1$ .

$2 \frac{{(x^{2} + 1)}^{3} (3 x^{2} - 3) - 3 x (x^{2} - 3) ({(x^{2} + 1)}^{2} \frac{d}{d x} [x^{2} + 1])}{{(x^{2} + 1)}^{6}}$

Step 11.2

Factor ${(x^{2} + 1)}^{2}$ out of ${(x^{2} + 1)}^{3} (3 x^{2} - 3) - 3 x (x^{2} - 3) ({(x^{2} + 1)}^{2} \frac{d}{d x} [x^{2} + 1])$ .

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Step 11.2.1

Factor ${(x^{2} + 1)}^{2}$ out of ${(x^{2} + 1)}^{3} (3 x^{2} - 3)$ .

$2 \frac{{(x^{2} + 1)}^{2} ((x^{2} + 1) (3 x^{2} - 3)) - 3 x (x^{2} - 3) ({(x^{2} + 1)}^{2} \frac{d}{d x} [x^{2} + 1])}{{(x^{2} + 1)}^{6}}$

Step 11.2.2

Factor ${(x^{2} + 1)}^{2}$ out of $- 3 x (x^{2} - 3) ({(x^{2} + 1)}^{2} \frac{d}{d x} [x^{2} + 1])$ .

$2 \frac{{(x^{2} + 1)}^{2} ((x^{2} + 1) (3 x^{2} - 3)) + {(x^{2} + 1)}^{2} (- 3 x (x^{2} - 3) (\frac{d}{d x} [x^{2} + 1]))}{{(x^{2} + 1)}^{6}}$

Step 11.2.3

Factor ${(x^{2} + 1)}^{2}$ out of ${(x^{2} + 1)}^{2} ((x^{2} + 1) (3 x^{2} - 3)) + {(x^{2} + 1)}^{2} (- 3 x (x^{2} - 3) (\frac{d}{d x} [x^{2} + 1]))$ .

$2 \frac{{(x^{2} + 1)}^{2} ((x^{2} + 1) (3 x^{2} - 3) - 3 x (x^{2} - 3) (\frac{d}{d x} [x^{2} + 1]))}{{(x^{2} + 1)}^{6}}$

Step 12

Cancel the common factors.

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Step 12.1

Factor ${(x^{2} + 1)}^{2}$ out of ${(x^{2} + 1)}^{6}$ .

$2 \frac{{(x^{2} + 1)}^{2} ((x^{2} + 1) (3 x^{2} - 3) - 3 x (x^{2} - 3) (\frac{d}{d x} [x^{2} + 1]))}{{(x^{2} + 1)}^{2} {(x^{2} + 1)}^{4}}$

Step 12.2

Cancel the common factor.

$2 \frac{{(x^{2} + 1)}^{2} ((x^{2} + 1) (3 x^{2} - 3) - 3 x (x^{2} - 3) (\frac{d}{d x} [x^{2} + 1]))}{{(x^{2} + 1)}^{2} {(x^{2} + 1)}^{4}}$

Step 12.3

Rewrite the expression.

$2 \frac{(x^{2} + 1) (3 x^{2} - 3) - 3 x (x^{2} - 3) (\frac{d}{d x} [x^{2} + 1])}{{(x^{2} + 1)}^{4}}$

Step 13

By the Sum Rule, the derivative of $x^{2} + 1$ with respect to $x$ is $\frac{d}{d x} [x^{2}] + \frac{d}{d x} [1]$ .

$2 \frac{(x^{2} + 1) (3 x^{2} - 3) - 3 x (x^{2} - 3) (\frac{d}{d x} [x^{2}] + \frac{d}{d x} [1])}{{(x^{2} + 1)}^{4}}$

Step 14

Differentiate using the Power Rule which states that $\frac{d}{d x} [x^{n}]$ is $n x^{n - 1}$ where $n = 2$ .

$2 \frac{(x^{2} + 1) (3 x^{2} - 3) - 3 x (x^{2} - 3) (2 x + \frac{d}{d x} [1])}{{(x^{2} + 1)}^{4}}$

Step 15

Since $1$ is constant with respect to $x$ , the derivative of $1$ with respect to $x$ is $0$ .

$2 \frac{(x^{2} + 1) (3 x^{2} - 3) - 3 x (x^{2} - 3) (2 x + 0)}{{(x^{2} + 1)}^{4}}$

Step 16

Simplify the expression.

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Step 16.1

Add $2 x$ and $0$ .

$2 \frac{(x^{2} + 1) (3 x^{2} - 3) - 3 x (x^{2} - 3) (2 x)}{{(x^{2} + 1)}^{4}}$

Step 16.2

Multiply $2$ by $- 3$ .

$2 \frac{(x^{2} + 1) (3 x^{2} - 3) - 6 x (x^{2} - 3) x}{{(x^{2} + 1)}^{4}}$

Step 17

Raise $x$ to the power of $1$ .

$2 \frac{(x^{2} + 1) (3 x^{2} - 3) - 6 (x^{1} x) (x^{2} - 3)}{{(x^{2} + 1)}^{4}}$

Step 18

Raise $x$ to the power of $1$ .

$2 \frac{(x^{2} + 1) (3 x^{2} - 3) - 6 (x^{1} x^{1}) (x^{2} - 3)}{{(x^{2} + 1)}^{4}}$

Step 19

Use the power rule $a^{m} a^{n} = a^{m + n}$ to combine exponents.

$2 \frac{(x^{2} + 1) (3 x^{2} - 3) - 6 x^{1 + 1} (x^{2} - 3)}{{(x^{2} + 1)}^{4}}$

Step 20

Add $1$ and $1$ .

$2 \frac{(x^{2} + 1) (3 x^{2} - 3) - 6 x^{2} (x^{2} - 3)}{{(x^{2} + 1)}^{4}}$

Step 21

Combine $2$ and $\frac{(x^{2} + 1) (3 x^{2} - 3) - 6 x^{2} (x^{2} - 3)}{{(x^{2} + 1)}^{4}}$ .

$\frac{2 ((x^{2} + 1) (3 x^{2} - 3) - 6 x^{2} (x^{2} - 3))}{{(x^{2} + 1)}^{4}}$

Step 22

Simplify.

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Step 22.1

Apply the distributive property.

$\frac{2 ((x^{2} + 1) (3 x^{2} - 3) - 6 x^{2} x^{2} - 6 x^{2} \cdot - 3)}{{(x^{2} + 1)}^{4}}$

Step 22.2

Apply the distributive property.

$\frac{2 ((x^{2} + 1) (3 x^{2} - 3)) + 2 (- 6 x^{2} x^{2}) + 2 (- 6 x^{2} \cdot - 3)}{{(x^{2} + 1)}^{4}}$

Step 22.3

Simplify the numerator.

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Step 22.3.1

Simplify each term.

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Step 22.3.1.1

Expand $(x^{2} + 1) (3 x^{2} - 3)$ using the FOIL Method.

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Step 22.3.1.1.1

Apply the distributive property.

$\frac{2 (x^{2} (3 x^{2} - 3) + 1 (3 x^{2} - 3)) + 2 (- 6 x^{2} x^{2}) + 2 (- 6 x^{2} \cdot - 3)}{{(x^{2} + 1)}^{4}}$

Step 22.3.1.1.2

Apply the distributive property.

$\frac{2 (x^{2} (3 x^{2}) + x^{2} \cdot - 3 + 1 (3 x^{2} - 3)) + 2 (- 6 x^{2} x^{2}) + 2 (- 6 x^{2} \cdot - 3)}{{(x^{2} + 1)}^{4}}$

Step 22.3.1.1.3

Apply the distributive property.

$\frac{2 (x^{2} (3 x^{2}) + x^{2} \cdot - 3 + 1 (3 x^{2}) + 1 \cdot - 3) + 2 (- 6 x^{2} x^{2}) + 2 (- 6 x^{2} \cdot - 3)}{{(x^{2} + 1)}^{4}}$

Step 22.3.1.2

Simplify and combine like terms.

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Step 22.3.1.2.1

Simplify each term.

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Step 22.3.1.2.1.1

Rewrite using the commutative property of multiplication.

$\frac{2 (3 x^{2} x^{2} + x^{2} \cdot - 3 + 1 (3 x^{2}) + 1 \cdot - 3) + 2 (- 6 x^{2} x^{2}) + 2 (- 6 x^{2} \cdot - 3)}{{(x^{2} + 1)}^{4}}$

Step 22.3.1.2.1.2

Multiply $x^{2}$ by $x^{2}$ by adding the exponents.

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Step 22.3.1.2.1.2.1

Move $x^{2}$ .

$\frac{2 (3 (x^{2} x^{2}) + x^{2} \cdot - 3 + 1 (3 x^{2}) + 1 \cdot - 3) + 2 (- 6 x^{2} x^{2}) + 2 (- 6 x^{2} \cdot - 3)}{{(x^{2} + 1)}^{4}}$

Step 22.3.1.2.1.2.2

Use the power rule $a^{m} a^{n} = a^{m + n}$ to combine exponents.

$\frac{2 (3 x^{2 + 2} + x^{2} \cdot - 3 + 1 (3 x^{2}) + 1 \cdot - 3) + 2 (- 6 x^{2} x^{2}) + 2 (- 6 x^{2} \cdot - 3)}{{(x^{2} + 1)}^{4}}$

Step 22.3.1.2.1.2.3

Add $2$ and $2$ .

$\frac{2 (3 x^{4} + x^{2} \cdot - 3 + 1 (3 x^{2}) + 1 \cdot - 3) + 2 (- 6 x^{2} x^{2}) + 2 (- 6 x^{2} \cdot - 3)}{{(x^{2} + 1)}^{4}}$

Step 22.3.1.2.1.3

Move $- 3$ to the left of $x^{2}$ .

$\frac{2 (3 x^{4} - 3 \cdot x^{2} + 1 (3 x^{2}) + 1 \cdot - 3) + 2 (- 6 x^{2} x^{2}) + 2 (- 6 x^{2} \cdot - 3)}{{(x^{2} + 1)}^{4}}$

Step 22.3.1.2.1.4

Multiply $3 x^{2}$ by $1$ .

$\frac{2 (3 x^{4} - 3 x^{2} + 3 x^{2} + 1 \cdot - 3) + 2 (- 6 x^{2} x^{2}) + 2 (- 6 x^{2} \cdot - 3)}{{(x^{2} + 1)}^{4}}$

Step 22.3.1.2.1.5

Multiply $- 3$ by $1$ .

$\frac{2 (3 x^{4} - 3 x^{2} + 3 x^{2} - 3) + 2 (- 6 x^{2} x^{2}) + 2 (- 6 x^{2} \cdot - 3)}{{(x^{2} + 1)}^{4}}$

Step 22.3.1.2.2

Add $- 3 x^{2}$ and $3 x^{2}$ .

$\frac{2 (3 x^{4} + 0 - 3) + 2 (- 6 x^{2} x^{2}) + 2 (- 6 x^{2} \cdot - 3)}{{(x^{2} + 1)}^{4}}$

Step 22.3.1.2.3

Add $3 x^{4}$ and $0$ .

$\frac{2 (3 x^{4} - 3) + 2 (- 6 x^{2} x^{2}) + 2 (- 6 x^{2} \cdot - 3)}{{(x^{2} + 1)}^{4}}$

Step 22.3.1.3

Apply the distributive property.

$\frac{2 (3 x^{4}) + 2 \cdot - 3 + 2 (- 6 x^{2} x^{2}) + 2 (- 6 x^{2} \cdot - 3)}{{(x^{2} + 1)}^{4}}$

Step 22.3.1.4

Multiply $3$ by $2$ .

$\frac{6 x^{4} + 2 \cdot - 3 + 2 (- 6 x^{2} x^{2}) + 2 (- 6 x^{2} \cdot - 3)}{{(x^{2} + 1)}^{4}}$

Step 22.3.1.5

Multiply $2$ by $- 3$ .

$\frac{6 x^{4} - 6 + 2 (- 6 x^{2} x^{2}) + 2 (- 6 x^{2} \cdot - 3)}{{(x^{2} + 1)}^{4}}$

Step 22.3.1.6

Multiply $x^{2}$ by $x^{2}$ by adding the exponents.

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Step 22.3.1.6.1

Move $x^{2}$ .

$\frac{6 x^{4} - 6 + 2 (- 6 (x^{2} x^{2})) + 2 (- 6 x^{2} \cdot - 3)}{{(x^{2} + 1)}^{4}}$

Step 22.3.1.6.2

Use the power rule $a^{m} a^{n} = a^{m + n}$ to combine exponents.

$\frac{6 x^{4} - 6 + 2 (- 6 x^{2 + 2}) + 2 (- 6 x^{2} \cdot - 3)}{{(x^{2} + 1)}^{4}}$

Step 22.3.1.6.3

Add $2$ and $2$ .

$\frac{6 x^{4} - 6 + 2 (- 6 x^{4}) + 2 (- 6 x^{2} \cdot - 3)}{{(x^{2} + 1)}^{4}}$

Step 22.3.1.7

Multiply $- 6$ by $2$ .

$\frac{6 x^{4} - 6 - 12 x^{4} + 2 (- 6 x^{2} \cdot - 3)}{{(x^{2} + 1)}^{4}}$

Step 22.3.1.8

Multiply $- 3$ by $- 6$ .

$\frac{6 x^{4} - 6 - 12 x^{4} + 2 (18 x^{2})}{{(x^{2} + 1)}^{4}}$

Step 22.3.1.9

Multiply $18$ by $2$ .

$\frac{6 x^{4} - 6 - 12 x^{4} + 36 x^{2}}{{(x^{2} + 1)}^{4}}$

Step 22.3.2

Subtract $12 x^{4}$ from $6 x^{4}$ .

$\frac{- 6 x^{4} - 6 + 36 x^{2}}{{(x^{2} + 1)}^{4}}$

Step 22.4

Reorder terms.

$\frac{- 6 x^{4} + 36 x^{2} - 6}{{(x^{2} + 1)}^{4}}$

Step 22.5

Factor $6$ out of $- 6 x^{4} + 36 x^{2} - 6$ .

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Step 22.5.1

Factor $6$ out of $- 6 x^{4}$ .

$\frac{6 (- x^{4}) + 36 x^{2} - 6}{{(x^{2} + 1)}^{4}}$

Step 22.5.2

Factor $6$ out of $36 x^{2}$ .

$\frac{6 (- x^{4}) + 6 (6 x^{2}) - 6}{{(x^{2} + 1)}^{4}}$

Step 22.5.3

Factor $6$ out of $- 6$ .

$\frac{6 (- x^{4}) + 6 (6 x^{2}) + 6 (- 1)}{{(x^{2} + 1)}^{4}}$

Step 22.5.4

Factor $6$ out of $6 (- x^{4}) + 6 (6 x^{2})$ .

$\frac{6 (- x^{4} + 6 x^{2}) + 6 (- 1)}{{(x^{2} + 1)}^{4}}$

Step 22.5.5

Factor $6$ out of $6 (- x^{4} + 6 x^{2}) + 6 (- 1)$ .

$\frac{6 (- x^{4} + 6 x^{2} - 1)}{{(x^{2} + 1)}^{4}}$

Step 22.6

Factor $- 1$ out of $- x^{4}$ .

$\frac{6 (- (x^{4}) + 6 x^{2} - 1)}{{(x^{2} + 1)}^{4}}$

Step 22.7

Factor $- 1$ out of $6 x^{2}$ .

$\frac{6 (- (x^{4}) - (- 6 x^{2}) - 1)}{{(x^{2} + 1)}^{4}}$

Step 22.8

Factor $- 1$ out of $- (x^{4}) - (- 6 x^{2})$ .

$\frac{6 (- (x^{4} - 6 x^{2}) - 1)}{{(x^{2} + 1)}^{4}}$

Step 22.9

Rewrite $- 1$ as $- 1 (1)$ .

$\frac{6 (- (x^{4} - 6 x^{2}) - 1 (1))}{{(x^{2} + 1)}^{4}}$

Step 22.10

Factor $- 1$ out of $- (x^{4} - 6 x^{2}) - 1 (1)$ .

$\frac{6 (- (x^{4} - 6 x^{2} + 1))}{{(x^{2} + 1)}^{4}}$

Step 22.11

Rewrite $- (x^{4} - 6 x^{2} + 1)$ as $- 1 (x^{4} - 6 x^{2} + 1)$ .

$\frac{6 (- 1 (x^{4} - 6 x^{2} + 1))}{{(x^{2} + 1)}^{4}}$

Step 22.12

Move the negative in front of the fraction.

$- \frac{6 (x^{4} - 6 x^{2} + 1)}{{(x^{2} + 1)}^{4}}$